Fig. 9

Average annual forest flux estimates in Indonesia and Malaysia according to different flux datasets. Bars denote the average annual gross emissions/removals and black points and associated text denote the net forest carbon fluxes over the period 2001 to 2020. The datasets are the Global Earth Observation (EO) dataset and the National Greenhouse Gas inventory (NGHGI). The raw data for the Global EO are available for 2001–2020 [17], for the Indonesian NGHGI for 2001–2019 [49], and for the Malaysian NGHGI for 2002–2016 [50]. For both the NGHGIs adjustments were made to the time period to make them comparable with the Global EO dataset (see “Methodology”). Gross emissions were separated according to the NGHGI categories, namely deforestation, emissions in forest land remaining forest land (FL → FL) (relating to biomass burning), peat decomposition, and peat fire removals. Gross removals refer to all-natural forest removals considered in the respective datasets. Gross removals in tree crop plantations in the Global EO were excluded as these are considered croplands by both NGHGIs. The net flux is shown by the black dot and associated number. Flux is given in CO₂ equivalent (CO₂e) as the Indonesian NGHGI did not subcategorise by gas, this distinction is only relevant for gross emissions and all gross removals are CO₂-only