Fig. 1

Location of the pilot study area and example disturbance types. a The pilot study area (approximately 2.5 Mha) is located in northern Alberta, Canada and includes approximately 1.3 Mha of upland forest, 0.8 Mha of wetlands and 0.4 M ha of other land types (e.g., bare surface, urban development, water). Examples of disturbance types in the region include b forest harvesting, c surface mining, d in-situ oil and gas extraction and e wildfire. This study was applied to the upland forest area only